Oxidative Storm Induced by Tryptophan Metabolites: Missing Link between Atherosclerosis and Chronic Kidney Disease

Figure 4

Contribution of tryptophan metabolites, indoxyl sulfate (a) and kynurenines (b), in the development of atherosclerosis, including reactive oxygen species as a damaging factor. AhR: aryl hydrocarbon receptor; CCL-2, -4: macrophage inflammatory protein 2, 4; GSH: glutathione; ICAM-1: intercellular adhesion molecule; NF-κB: nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells; ROS: reactive oxygen species; VCAM-1: vascular cell adhesion molecule-1; VE-cadherin: vascular endothelial cadherin; vWF: von Willebrand factor.