One-, Two-, and Three-Parameter Isotherms, Kinetics, and Thermodynamic Evaluation of Co(II) Removal from Aqueous Solution Using Dead Neem Leaves

Table 1

Summary of effects of cobalt exposure [4].

Organ system	Toxicity levels reported	Reported effects
Pulmonary	0.015–0.13 mg Co/m^3	Pulmonary compromise, pulmonary inflammation, granulomatous lung disease, restrictive lung disease, pulmonary fibrosis, fibrosing alveolitis, asthma-like syndrome
Hematological	∼1 mg Co/kg/day	Increased levels of erythrocytes and hemoglobin, i.e., polycythemia (levels normalize 9–15 days after cessation)
Cardiovascular	0.04 mg Co/kg/day to 0.14 mg Co/kg/day	Beer-drinkers’ cardiomyopathy, sinus tachycardia, left ventricular failure, cardiogenic shock, diminished myocardial compliance, absence of myocardial response to exercise or catecholamine, enlarged heart, pericardial effusion, extensive intracellular changes (changes in the myofibers, mitochondria, glycogen, and lipids), pathological changes in myocardiaum including proliferative interstitial tissue, swollen muscle fibers, and focal degeneration.
Gastrointestinal	0.04 mg Co/kg/day	Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea,
Hepatic effects	0.04 mg Co/kg/day	Central hepatic necrosis, increased serum bilirubin, increase aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), lactic acid dehydrogenase (LDH), increase creatine phosphokinase, increase ornithine carbamyl transferase, isocitric dehydrogenase, and aldolase
Endocrine	0.066 mg Co/kg/day	Histological morphology: irregular follicles, decreased follicular size, goiter, hypothyroidism, thyroid hypoplasia, thyroid hypertrophy, thyroid hyperplasia, thyroid firmness
Dermatological	0.014 mg/kg/day	Allergic dermatitis, eczema flares,
Ophthalmological	1.3 mg Co/kg/day	Severe visual disturbance (optic atrophy, impaired choroidal perfusion), implant-related chorio-retinal cobalt toxicity, patchy degeneration of the photoreceptor-retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) complex, toxic retinopathy
Neurological	Serum levels > 0.01 mg	Memory impairment, altered mental status, deafness, vertigo, seizures, tremors
Psychiatric	Serum levels > 0.01 mg	Depression

High genotoxicity on A. cepa plant was reported for all the water samples from industrial effluents of Sandub area, Dakahlia, Egypt, and correlated with the presence of some heavy metals (Pb, Zn, Co, Cd, and Cu) [20]