Recent Nanotechnology Approaches for Prevention and Treatment of Biofilm-Associated Infections on Medical Devices

Table 1

Nanoparticle-based solutions for prevention and treatment of biofilm associated-medical device infections.

Material	Nanomaterial description	Antibiofilm devices	Antimicrobial mechanism of NPs
Inorganic NPs	Silver NPs [12–15]; Surface engineered gold NPs [16]	Urethral catheters, central venous catheters; Ventricular drain catheters	Released silver ion interacts with sulfhydryl groups of bacteria and interferes with cell membrane integrity, enzyme activities, respiratory chains, and cell proliferations [17].; Highly positive surface charge disrupts the network of EPS.
Organic NPs	Quaternary ammonium chitosan NPs [18]; PEG stabilized lipid NPs [19]	Bone and dental cements	Long cationic polymer chains penetrate the cell membrane and can induce ion exchange to disrupt biofilm
Metallic/metal-polymer nanocomposites	Ag-Ti composites [20]; Silver or antibiotic conjugated NPs [21, 22]; Silver conjugated silicone NPs [23]; Diamond like carbon-metal nanocomposites [24]; Silicone containing antibiotic loaded liposome [25]; Polymeric silver NPs [26]; Silver nanoparticle coated surfaces [27]; Polycationic NPs [28]	Face masks; Heart valve; Catheter against fungi; Pedicle screws	Highly positive surface charge disrupts the network of EPS; Silver ions bound with deoxyribonucleic acid and interfere with electron transport, injuring bacterial enzymes and causing biofilm disruption
Metallic/metal-polymer nanocomposites	ZnO NP incorporated titanium implants [29]; TiO2 nanotube arrays [30]; Ag NP conjugated poly(ethylene glycol diacrylate)-co-acrylic acid (PEGDA-AA) hydrogel coatings on a Ti substrate; Quaternary ammonium salts (QAS) loaded TiO2 nanotubes [31]; Ciprofloxacin-loaded nanochitosan coated Ti implants [32]; Polymeric NP based photodynamic therapy [33]	Orthopedic implants	ZnO alter protein adsorptions and intracellular mechanisms; Positive surface of QAS disintegrates the negatively charged bacteria; Released ciprofloxacin inhibits enzymes including DNA gyrase, and topoisomerase causes bacterial disruption; Free radicals interact with endogenous molecular oxygen to produce ROS, superoxide hydroxyl radicals, and hydrogen peroxide damages bacteria membrane integrity and causes irreparable bacteria lysis
Metallic/metal-polymer nanocomposites	Ti implant surfaces with ZnO NPs [34]; Nanostructured titania coating with Ag NPs [35]; Antibiotic incorporated silk fibroin NPs coated titanium surface [36]; Nanosilver-endodontic filling and dental adhesives [37, 38]	Oral implants; Endodontic filling and dental adhesives	Direct contact, ZnO release, ROS generation; Irreversible binding of gentamycin disrupts bacteria
Metallic/metal-polymer nanocomposites	Silica NPs [39]; Hydrogel containing Ag NPs [40]; Zn-CuO nanocoating on contact lenses [41]; Quaternized chitosan loaded Ag NPs and antifungal agent conjugated graphene oxide [42]	Contact lenses	Released Ag ions disintegrate the bacteria and inhibit biofilm development; Voriconazole inhibits ergosterol synthesis by inhibiting 14-alpha sterol demethylase which produced antifungal activity.