Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are ligand-activated nuclear receptors controlling many important physiological processes, including lipid and glucose metabolism, energy homeostasis, inflammation, as well as cell proliferation and differentiation. In the past decade, intensive study of PPARs has shed novel insight into prevention and treatment of dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes. Recently, a large body of research revealed that PPARs are also functionally expressed in reproductive organs and various parts of placenta during pregnancy, which strongly suggests that PPARs might play a critical role in reproduction and development, in addition to their central actions in energy homeostasis. In this review, we summarize recent findings elucidating the role of PPARs in female reproduction, with particular focus on evidence from gene knockout and transgenic animal model study.

Jichun Yang

Lihong Chen

Xiaoyan Zhang

Yunfeng Zhou

Dongjuan Zhang

Ming Huo

Youfei Guan

PPARs and Female Reproduction: Evidence from Genetically Manipulated Mice

P. Froment

PPARs and RXRs in Male and Female Fertility and Reproduction

In several species, a family of nuclear receptors, the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) composed of three isotypes, is expressed in somatic cells and germ cells of the ovary as well as the testis. Invalidation of these receptors in mice or stimulation of these receptors in vivo or in vitro showed that each receptor has physiological roles in the gamete maturation or the embryo development. In addition, synthetic PPAR<svg     style="vertical-align:-3.56265pt;width:8.6374998px;" id="M1" height="12.175" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 8.6374998 12.175" width="8.6374998"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,7.675)"><path id="x1D6FE" d="M478 372q0 -39 -31 -97t-61 -98t-78 -98q-45 -55 -73 -102q-13 -79 -13 -197q-11 -11 -43.5 -25.5t-53.5 -15.5l-15 17q5 35 26 101.5t47 123.5q8 72 -1.5 174.5t-37.5 178.5q-14 37 -29 37q-20 0 -67 -65l-25 21q37 60 73 90.5t63 30.5q47 0 72 -112q13 -56 17.5 -141.5&#xA;t0.5 -143.5h2q155 193 155 297q0 26 -12 47q-5 8 -5 15q0 16 12.5 27t29.5 11q21 0 34 -21t13 -55z" /></g>

		
	
</svg> ligands are recently used to induce ovulation in women with polycystic ovary disease. These results reveal the positive actions of PPAR in reproduction. On the other hand, xenobiotics molecules (in herbicides, plasticizers, or components of personal care products), capable of activating PPAR, may disrupt normal PPAR functions in the ovary or the testis and have consequences on the quality of the gametes and the embryos. Despite the recent data obtained on the biological actions of PPARs in reproduction, relatively little is known about PPARs in gametes and embryos. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the expression and the function of PPARs as well as their partners, retinoid X receptors (RXRs), in germ cells and preimplantation embryos. The effects of natural and synthetic PPAR ligands will also be discussed from the perspectives of reproductive toxicology and assisted reproductive technology.

Jaou-Chen Huang

The Role of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors in the Development and Physiology of Gametes and Preimplantation Embryos

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-<svg style="vertical-align:-2.34499pt;width:8.0625px;" id="M2" height="9.9375" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 8.0625 9.9375" width="8.0625"  xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
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</svg> (PPAR)-<svg style="vertical-align:-2.34499pt;width:8.0625px;" id="M3" height="9.9375" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 8.0625 9.9375" width="8.0625"  xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
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</svg> is a ligand-activated transcriptional factor belonging to steroid receptor superfamily. PPAR-<svg style="vertical-align:-2.34499pt;width:8.0625px;" id="M4" height="9.9375" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 8.0625 9.9375" width="8.0625"  xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
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</svg> plays a role in both adipocyte differentiation and tumorigenesis. Up to date, PPAR-<svg style="vertical-align:-2.34499pt;width:8.0625px;" id="M5" height="9.9375" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 8.0625 9.9375" width="8.0625"  xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
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</svg> is expressed in various cancer tissues, and PPAR-<svg style="vertical-align:-2.34499pt;width:8.0625px;" id="M6" height="9.9375" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 8.0625 9.9375" width="8.0625"  xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
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</svg> ligand induces growth arrest of these cancer cells. In this study, we examined the expression of PPAR-<svg style="vertical-align:-2.34499pt;width:8.0625px;" id="M7" height="9.9375" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 8.0625 9.9375" width="8.0625"  xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
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</svg> in prostate cancer (PC) and testicular cancer (TC) by RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry, and we also examined the effect of PPAR-<svg style="vertical-align:-2.34499pt;width:8.0625px;" id="M8" height="9.9375" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 8.0625 9.9375" width="8.0625"  xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
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</svg> ligand in these cells by MTT assay, hoechest staining, and flow cytometry. PPAR-<svg style="vertical-align:-2.34499pt;width:8.0625px;" id="M9" height="9.9375" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 8.0625 9.9375" width="8.0625"  xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
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</svg> expression was significantly more extensive and intense in malignant tissues than in normal tissues. PPAR-<svg style="vertical-align:-2.34499pt;width:8.0625px;" id="M10" height="9.9375" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 8.0625 9.9375" width="8.0625"  xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
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</svg> ligand induced the reduction of malignant cell viability through apoptosis. These results demonstrated that the generated PPAR-<svg style="vertical-align:-2.34499pt;width:8.0625px;" id="M11" height="9.9375" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 8.0625 9.9375" width="8.0625"  xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
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</svg> in PC and TC cells might play an important role in the tumorigenesis. PPAR-<svg style="vertical-align:-2.34499pt;width:8.0625px;" id="M12" height="9.9375" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 8.0625 9.9375" width="8.0625"  xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
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</svg> may become a new target in the treatment of PC and TC.

Masahide Matsuyama

Rikio Yoshimura

Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor-<svg style="vertical-align:-3.56265pt" height="12.175" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 8.6374998 12.175" width="8.6374998" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,7.675)"><path id="x1D6FE" d="M478 372q0 -39 -31 -97t-61 -98t-78 -98q-45 -55 -73 -102q-13 -79 -13 -197q-11 -11 -43.5 -25.5t-53.5 -15.5l-15 17q5 35 26 101.5t47 123.5q8 72 -1.5 174.5t-37.5 178.5q-14 37 -29 37q-20 0 -67 -65l-25 21q37 60 73 90.5t63 30.5q47 0 72 -112q13 -56 17.5 -141.5&#xA;t0.5 -143.5h2q155 193 155 297q0 26 -12 47q-5 8 -5 15q0 16 12.5 27t29.5 11q21 0 34 -21t13 -55z" /></g></svg> Is a Potent Target for Prevention and Treatment in Human Prostate and Testicular Cancer

The placenta is a transitory structure indispensable for the proper development of the embryo and fetus during mammalian gestation. Like other members of the nuclear receptor family, the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors 
(PPARs) are known to be involved in the physiological and pathological events occurring during the placentation. 
This placental involvement has been recently reviewed focusing on the early stages of placental development (implantation and invasion, etc.), mouse PPARs knockout phenotypes, and cytotrophoblast physiology. In this 
review, we describe the placental involvement of PPARs (e.g., fat transport and metabolism, etc.) during the late stages of 
gestation and in the amniotic membranes, highlighting their roles in the inflammation process (e.g., chorioamnionitis), metabolic disorders (e.g., diabetes), and parturition.

Valerie  Borel

Denis  Gallot

Geoffroy  Marceau

Vincent  Sapin

Lo&#239;c  Blanchon

Placental Implications of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors in Gestation and Parturition

Beyond the short-term effects on fertility, there is increasing evidence that obesity or the consumption of an inappropriate diet by the mother during pregnancy adversely affects the long-term health of her offspring. PPAR and RXR isotypes are widely expressed in reproductive tissues and in the developing fetus. Through their interactions with fatty acids, they may mediate adaptive responses to the changes in the maternal diet. In the maturing follicle, PPAR-<svg     style="vertical-align:-3.56265pt;width:8.6374998px;" id="M1" height="12.175" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 8.6374998 12.175" width="8.6374998"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,7.675)"><path id="x1D6FE" d="M478 372q0 -39 -31 -97t-61 -98t-78 -98q-45 -55 -73 -102q-13 -79 -13 -197q-11 -11 -43.5 -25.5t-53.5 -15.5l-15 17q5 35 26 101.5t47 123.5q8 72 -1.5 174.5t-37.5 178.5q-14 37 -29 37q-20 0 -67 -65l-25 21q37 60 73 90.5t63 30.5q47 0 72 -112q13 -56 17.5 -141.5&#xA;t0.5 -143.5h2q155 193 155 297q0 26 -12 47q-5 8 -5 15q0 16 12.5 27t29.5 11q21 0 34 -21t13 -55z" /></g>

		
	
</svg> has an important role in the granulosa cells that surround the maturing oocyte. After fertilisation, PPAR-<svg     style="vertical-align:-3.56265pt;width:8.6374998px;" id="M2" height="12.175" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 8.6374998 12.175" width="8.6374998"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,7.675)"><use xlink:href="#x1D6FE"/></g>

		
	
</svg> and PPAR-<svg     style="vertical-align:-3.56265pt;width:25.7875px;" id="M3" height="16.6625" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 25.7875 16.6625" width="25.7875"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,12.162)"><path id="x1D6FD" d="M558 587q0 -32 -14 -61t-40 -53.5t-48.5 -41t-54.5 -36.5q144 -51 144 -174q0 -55 -43.5 -108t-104.5 -87q-77 -42 -131 -42q-31 0 -54 20t-31 47l11 18q48 -29 108 -29q79 0 119.5 43t40.5 109t-44.5 107.5t-119.5 50.5l22 47q34 1 65 21q96 61 96 157q0 42 -24 67.5&#xA;t-62 25.5q-24 0 -43.5 -9t-35 -29.5t-27 -44t-22.5 -63t-19.5 -75.5t-18.5 -91q-57 -294 -68 -380q-26 -190 -35 -200q-26 -31 -97 -37l-4 26q19 9 48 170l77 413q23 121 52.5 187.5t83.5 114.5q70 62 148 62q51 0 88.5 -34t37.5 -91z" /></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,9.939,12.162)"><path id="x2F" d="M368 703l-264 -866h-60l265 866h59z" /></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,16.942,12.162)"><path id="x1D6FF" d="M494 514l-10 -15q-56 76 -106.5 117t-110.5 41q-45 0 -45 -30q0 -28 109 -152q59 -68 86 -118.5t27 -107.5q0 -62 -29.5 -119.5t-86.5 -96.5q-64 -45 -138 -45q-76 0 -121.5 53t-45.5 136q0 74 40.5 135t98.5 95q43 26 87 42q-40 59 -57.5 92t-17.5 62q0 46 39 77.5&#xA;t90 31.5q54 0 97.5 -35.5t65 -78.5t28.5 -84zM359 234q0 84 -90 191q-47 -17 -74 -47q-81 -89 -81 -200q0 -71 32.5 -109.5t72.5 -38.5q47 0 80 33t46.5 77.5t13.5 93.5z" /></g>

		
	
</svg> are essential regulators of placentation and the subsequent development of key metabolic tissues such as skeletal muscle and adipose cells. Activation of PPAR-<svg     style="vertical-align:-3.56265pt;width:8.6374998px;" id="M4" height="12.175" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 8.6374998 12.175" width="8.6374998"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
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</svg> and PPAR-<svg     style="vertical-align:-3.56265pt;width:25.7875px;" id="M5" height="16.6625" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 25.7875 16.6625" width="25.7875"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,12.162)"><use xlink:href="#x1D6FD"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,9.939,12.162)"><use xlink:href="#x2F"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,16.942,12.162)"><use xlink:href="#x1D6FF"/></g>

		
	
</svg> during fetal development has the potential to modify the growth and development of these tissues. PPAR-<svg     style="vertical-align:-0.1638pt;width:9.7749996px;" id="M6" height="7.9499998" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 9.7749996 7.9499998" width="9.7749996"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,7.675)"><path id="x1D6FC" d="M545 106q-67 -118 -134 -118q-24 0 -40 37.5t-30 129.5h-2q-47 -72 -103 -119.5t-108 -47.5q-47 0 -76 45.5t-29 119.5q0 113 85 204t174 91q47 0 70 -33.5t43 -119.5h3q32 47 80 140l55 13l10 -9q-47 -80 -138 -201q17 -99 27.5 -136t22.5 -37q23 0 69 61zM333 204&#xA;q-14 98 -31 149.5t-50 51.5q-49 0 -94 -70t-45 -164q0 -55 15.5 -86t40.5 -31q70 0 164 150z" /></g>

		
	
</svg> is expressed at low levels in the fetal liver, however, this expression may be important, as changes in the methylation of DNA in its promoter region are reported to take place during this period of development. This epigenetic modification then programmes subsequent expression. These findings suggest that two separate PPAR-dependent mechanisms may be involved in the fetal adaptations to the maternal diet, one, mediated by PPAR-<svg     style="vertical-align:-3.56265pt;width:8.6374998px;" id="M7" height="12.175" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 8.6374998 12.175" width="8.6374998"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,7.675)"><use xlink:href="#x1D6FE"/></g>

		
	
</svg> and PPAR-<svg     style="vertical-align:-3.56265pt;width:25.7875px;" id="M8" height="16.6625" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 25.7875 16.6625" width="25.7875"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,12.162)"><use xlink:href="#x1D6FD"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,9.939,12.162)"><use xlink:href="#x2F"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,16.942,12.162)"><use xlink:href="#x1D6FF"/></g>

		
	
</svg>, regulating cell growth and differentiation; and another adapting long-term lipid metabolism via epigenetic changes in PPAR-<svg     style="vertical-align:-0.1638pt;width:9.7749996px;" id="M9" height="7.9499998" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 9.7749996 7.9499998" width="9.7749996"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,7.675)"><use xlink:href="#x1D6FC"/></g>

		
	
</svg> to optimise postnatal survival.

William D. Rees

Christopher J. McNeil

Christopher A. Maloney

The Roles of PPARs in the Fetal Origins of Metabolic Health and Disease

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARG) regulates cellular functions such as adipogenesis and immune cell activation. However, new information has indicated additional roles of PPARG directing the cyclic changes that occur within ovarian tissue of female mammals, including those that facilitate the release of oocytes each estrous cycle. In addition to ovarian PPARG expression and function, many PPARG actions within adipocytes and macrophages have additional direct and indirect implications for ovarian function and female fertility. This encompasses the regulation of lipid uptake and transport, insulin sensitivity, glucose metabolism, and the regulation of inflammatory mediator synthesis and release. This review discusses the developing links between PPARG activity and female reproductive function, and highlights several mechanisms that may facilitate such a relationship.

Cadence E. Minge

Rebecca L. Robker

Robert J. Norman

PPAR Gamma: Coordinating Metabolic and Immune Contributions to Female Fertility

During pregnancy crucial anatomic, physiologic, and metabolic changes challenge the mother and the fetus. The placenta is a remarkable organ that allows the mother and the fetus to adapt to the new metabolic, immunologic, and angiogenic environment imposed by gestation. One of the physiologic systems that appears to have evolved to sustain this metabolic regulation is mediated by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs). In clinical pregnancy-specific disorders, including preeclampsia, gestational diabetes, and intrauterine growth restriction, aberrant regulation of components of the PPAR system parallels dysregulation of metabolism, inflammation and angiogenesis. This review summarizes current knowledge on the role of PPARs in regulating human trophoblast invasion, early placental development, and also in the physiology of clinical pregnancy and its complications. As increasingly indicated in the literature, pregnancy disorders, such as preeclampsia and gestational diabetes, represent potential targets for treatment with PPAR ligands. With the advent of more specific PPAR agonists that exhibit efficacy in ameliorating metabolic, inflammatory, and angiogenic disturbances, further studies of their application in pregnancy-related diseases are warranted.

Fritz Wieser

Leslie Waite

Christophe Depoix

Robert N. Taylor

PPAR Action in Human Placental Development and Pregnancy and Its Complications

There is growing evidence that male as well as female reproductive function has been declining in human and wildlife populations over the last 40 years. Several factors such as lifestyle or environmental xenobiotics other than genetic factors may play a role in determining adverse effects on reproductive health. Among the environmental xenobiotics phthalates, a family of man-made pollutants are suspected to interfere with the function of the endocrine system and therefore to be endocrine disruptors. The definition of endocrine disruption is today extended to broader endocrine regulations, and includes activation of metabolic sensors, such as the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs). Toxicological studies have shown that phthalates can activate a subset of PPARs. Here, we analyze the epidemiological and experimental evidence linking phthalate exposure to both PPAR activation and adverse effects on male and female reproductive health.

Giuseppe Latini

Egeria Scoditti

Alberto Verrotti

Claudio De Felice

Marika Massaro

Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors as Mediators of Phthalate-Induced Effects in the Male and Female Reproductive Tract: Epidemiological and Experimental Evidence

With the major attention to the pivotal roles of PPARs in diverse aspects of energy metabolism, the essential functions of PPAR<svg     style="vertical-align:-3.56265pt;width:8.6374998px;" id="M1" height="12.175" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 8.6374998 12.175" width="8.6374998"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
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</svg> and PPAR<svg     style="vertical-align:-3.56265pt;width:25.7875px;" id="M2" height="16.6625" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 25.7875 16.6625" width="25.7875"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
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</svg> in placental development came as a surprise and were often considered a nuisance en route to their genetic analysis. However, these findings provided an opportune entr&#xE9;e into placental biology. Genetic and pharmacological studies, primarily of knockout animal models and cell culture, uncovered networks of PPAR<svg     style="vertical-align:-3.56265pt;width:8.6374998px;" id="M3" height="12.175" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 8.6374998 12.175" width="8.6374998"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,7.675)"><use xlink:href="#x1D6FE"/></g>

		
	
</svg> and PPAR<svg     style="vertical-align:-0.1638pt;width:8.9125004px;" id="M4" height="12.4375" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 8.9125004 12.4375" width="8.9125004"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
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</svg>, their heterodimeric RXR partners, associated transcriptional coactivators, and target genes, that regulate various aspects of placental development and function. These studies furnish both specific information about trophoblasts and the placenta and potential hints about the functions of PPARs in other tissues and cell types. They reveal that the remarkable versatility of PPARs extends beyond the orchestration of metabolism to the regulation of cellular differentiation, tissue development, and trophoblast-specific functions. This information and its implications are the subject of this review. 

Yaacov Barak

Yoel Sadovsky

Tali Shalom-Barak

PPAR Signaling in Placental Development and Function

About this journal

<p><em>PPAR Research</em> publishes articles related to mechanisms involved in the activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors, as well as their role in regulation of cellular differentiation, development, energy homeostasis and metabolic function.</p>


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<p>Chief Editor, Dr Xiao-Jie Lu, is dedicated to basic and translational research on liver diseases. His research at Nanjing Medical University, China, focuses&nbsp;on exploring these diseases' underlying mechanisms that may be translatable to novel diagnostic biomarkers or therapeutic targets.</p>


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PPAR Research publishes articles related to mechanisms involved in the activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors, as well as their role in regulation of cellular differentiation, development, energy homeostasis and metabolic function.

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PPAR Research | Hindawi

PPAR Research

<p>This Issue is now open for submissions.</p>
<p>Papers are published upon acceptance, regardless of the Special Issue publication date.</p>


PPAR Research

PPARs and RXRs in Male and Female Fertility and Reproduction

PPARs and RXRs in Male and Female Fertility and Reproduction

Articles

PPARs and Female Reproduction: Evidence from Genetically Manipulated Mice

PPARs and RXRs in Male and Female Fertility and Reproduction

The Role of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors in the Development and Physiology of Gametes and Preimplantation Embryos

Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor- Is a Potent Target for Prevention and Treatment in Human Prostate and Testicular Cancer

Placental Implications of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors in Gestation and Parturition

The Roles of PPARs in the Fetal Origins of Metabolic Health and Disease

PPAR Gamma: Coordinating Metabolic and Immune Contributions to Female Fertility

PPAR Action in Human Placental Development and Pregnancy and Its Complications

Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors as Mediators of Phthalate-Induced Effects in the Male and Female Reproductive Tract: Epidemiological and Experimental Evidence

PPAR Signaling in Placental Development and Function