Enhancement of Executive Functions but Not Memory by Multidomain Group Cognitive Training in Patients with Parkinson’s Disease and Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Multicenter Randomized Controlled Trial
Table 1
Training effects for cognitive outcomes for both groups at the pre- and posttest.
Cognitive training (n = 33)
Physical activity (n = 31)
ITT − value (time × group)
PP − value (time × group)
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Global cognition
0.322
0.287
0.166
0.374
Memory
0.171
0.081
0.159
0.091
CVLT total score trials 1-5a
−1.38 ± 1.311
−0.94 ± 1.331
−1.00 ± 1.193
−0.91 ± 1.083
0.166
0.031
0.135
0.039
CVLT long delay free recall IIa
−1.25 ± 1.171
−1.23 ± 1.371
−1.18 ± 1.043
−0.86 ± 1.293
0.187
0.028
0.202
0.029
ROCFT delayed recalla
0.15 ± 0.941
0.38 ± 0.911
0.23 ± 1.182
0.25 ± 0.882
0.386
0.012
0.418
0.012
Executive functions
0.095
0.132
0.087
0.142
Semantic word fluencya
0.48 ± 0.891
0.53 ± 1.131
0.35 ± 1.432
0.28 ± 1.422
0.649
0.004
0.531
0.007
Phonemic word fluencya
0.27 ± 0.861
0.65 ± 0.931
0.34 ± 1.162
0.17 ± 1.162
0.018
0.092
0.020
0.094
MCST categoriesa
−0.81 ± 1.013
−0.46 ± 1.013
−0.92 ± 1.023
−0.99 ± 0.963
0.131
0.039
0.127
0.042
Key search—raw scorea
11.42 ± 3.151
11.52 ± 2.871
11.13 ± 3.442
10.29 ± 2.922
0.320
0.017
0.250
0.024
Attention
0.401
0.030
0.392
0.033
d2-R errorsa
−0.29 ± 1.401
0.01 ± 1.321
−0.45 ± 1.272
0.06 ± 1.382
0.509
0.007
0.378
0.014
d2-R concentration performancea
−1.57 ± 0.971
−1.33 ± 0.961
−1.53 ± 1.052
−1.35 ± 1.052
0.373
0.016
0.413
0.012
Working memory
0.174
0.056
0.175
0.059
Letter-number sequencing (WAIS)a
0.06 ± 0.771
0.19 ± 0.741
0.13 ± 1.022
0.21 ± 1.092
0.772
0.001
0.774
0.001
Digit span backward (WAIS)a
−0.04 ± 1.131
−0.38 ± 0.861
−0.42 ± 1.092
−0.31 ± 0.992
0.098
0.043
0.099
0.046
Visuocognition
0.597
0.017
0.635
0.016
ROCFT figure copya
0.40 ± 1.101
0.76 ± 0.951
0.08 ± 1.782
0.64 ± 1.202
0.431
0.010
0.462
0.009
Benton judgment of line orientationa
−0.56 ± 1.461
−0.19 ± 0.991
−0.67 ± 1.352
−0.13 ± 1.222
0.545
0.006
0.574
0.005
Language
0.319
0.037
0.317
0.040
Boston naming testa
0.05 ± 1.181
0.24 ± 1.161
−0.23 ± 1.442
0.19 ± 1.002
0.341
0.015
0.337
0.016
Speech comprehension (ACL)—raw scorea
17.88 ± 0.421
17.82 ± 0.531
17.39 ± 1.892
17.81 ± 0.752
0.161
0.031
0.160
0.034
PD-MCI
Yes (%)
33 (100%)
21 (63.6%)
31 (100%)
20 (64.5%)
No (%)
0 (0%)
12 (36.4%)
0 (0%)
11 (35.5%)
Single-domain PD-MCI (%)
2 (6.1%)
1 (3.0%)
0 (0%)
0
Multidomain PD-MCI (%)
31 (93.9%)
32 (97.0%)
31 (100%)
20 (100%)
The references of the neuropsychological and clinical assessments are obtainable by the authors upon request; data are indicated as mean standardized z-scores (if available) or raw scores and standard deviations. ACL, Aphasia Check List; BDI-II, Beck Depression Inventory II; CVLT, California Verbal Learning Test; ITT, intention-to-treat analysis; MCST, Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test; PD-MCI, Parkinson’s disease with mild cognitive impairment; PP, per-protocol analysis; ROCFT, Rey–Osterrieth Complex Figure Test; WAIS, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. aHigher values indicate better performance; 1n = 33; 2n = 31; 3n = 30.