Placental Ageing in Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes: Telomere Shortening, Cell Senescence, and Mitochondrial Dysfunction

Table 1

Senescence markers associated with placental ageing in adverse pregnancy outcomes.

Maternal plasma/serum	(1) Mitochondrial dysfunction; (2) Inflammatory marker (IL33/ST2 signalling pathway)	↑ mtDNA copy numbers; ↑ sST2 level
Trophoblastic cell lines	(1) Cell cycle regulators; (2) miRNA/lncRNA; (3) DNA damage response; (4) Senescence regulators; (5) Epigenetic changes	↑ Cyclin D1; ↑ Mir-376; ↑ PARP1; ↑ p53; ↓ JunB; ↓ MDM2; ↑Hypomethylation of cytosine
Placenta	(1) DNA damage response; (2) Cell cycle regulators; (3) Mitochondrial dysfunction	↑ p53; ↓ hTERT; ↑ Telomere aggregates; ↑ BAX; ↑Lipid peroxidation; ↑ NOS activity; ↑ Peroxynitrite synthesis; ↑ Phosphorylated DERP1 gene