|
Pathology of atherosclerosis | Polyphenols/polyphenol-rich food | Preventing mechanism | Reference |
|
Endothelial dysfunction | Hydroxytyrosol and EVOO polyphenol extract | ↑ eNOS phosphorylation, ↑ NO ↓ ET-1 synthesis ↓ ROS | [107] |
High- versus low-dose flavonoid dark chocolate (213 mg versus 46 mg procyanidins) | ↑ endothelium-dependent flow-mediated dilation of the brachial artery ↑ plasma epicatechin concentrations ↔ LDL oxidation, total antioxidant capacity, 8-isoprostanes, blood pressure, lipid parameters, body weight, or body mass index | [108] |
Red wines and grapes | ↑ NO activity ↑ cGMP ⊕ vascular smooth muscle relaxation | [109] |
|
OxLDL | Red wine | ⊝ copper-catalyzed oxidation of LDL | [116] |
(−)-Epicatechin gallate-enriched Hibiscus sabdariffa leaf polyphenols | ↓ OxLDL-dependent apoptosis | [117] |
Green tea catechins | Incorporated into LDL particles in nonconjugated forms ↓ oxidizability of LDL | [118] |
|
VSMC proliferation
| Red wine | ⊝ inhibition of PDGF β receptor ↓ VSMC proliferation and migration | [122] |
Pterostilbene, polyphenol compound in blueberries | ↓ VSMC migration ⊝ MMP-2 activation via Erk1/2 phosphorylation | [124] |
Resveratrol | ↑ serum BDNF concentrations ↓ VSMC contractility via a NOS-3-independent mechanism | [125] |
Curcumin | ↓ expression of p47phox ⊝ expression of IL-6 and TNF-α ↓ iNOS activity, ↓ NO ⊝ VSMC proliferation ↑ PPARγ activity ⊝ oxidative stress ↓ AngII-induced inflammatory responses | [126] |
|
Monocyte/macrophage and T lymphocytes inflammatory process | Tea flavonoids (theaflavin digallate, theaflavin, epigallocatechin gallate, epigallocatechin, and gallic acid) | ↓ cell-mediated LDL oxidation ↓ macrophages release superoxide and iron ions | [33] |
Pomegranate juice | ⊝ acrolein increases macrophage lipid accumulation and alters the gut microbiota composition | [129] |
Ellagic acid | ⊝ tautomerase activity of human macrophage MIF ⊝ NF-κB nuclear translocation | [130] |
Polyphenol-rich extract | ↓ MCP-1 ↓ macrophage MIF | [132] |
Resveratrol, isorhamnetin, curcumin, vanillic acid, and specific (poly)phenol mixtures | ↓ IL-6, interferon-γ induced protein 10 and TNF-α release | [133] |
|
Platelet aggregation | Pomegranate juice or the polyphenol-rich extract from pomegranate fruit | ⊝ collagen- and arachidonic acid-induced platelet aggregation ↓ collagen- and arachidonic acid-induced calcium mobilization ↓ thromboxane A2 production ↓ H2O2 formation | [136] |
Cocoa and dark chocolate | ↓ ADP-, adrenaline- and, epinephrine-induced GPIIb/IIIa membrane activation ↓ ADP-induced P-selectin membrane expression ↓ PLA2 and COX activity ↓ ROS, 8-iso-PGF2α, and NOX2 activation | [137–141] |
|