Review Article

Fully Autonomous Buses: A Literature Review and Future Research Directions

Table 2

Key studies on user acceptance aspects of autonomous buses.

Author(s) (year)TypeLocationMethodsKey findings

Alessandrini et al. (2014)Conference proceedingEuropeStated preference survey (survey conducted in 12 cities)(i) User preference is higher for automated public transport compared to traditional buses across the cities
(ii) The impact of socioeconomic variables on users’ preferences is heterogeneous across cities

Alessandrini et al. (2016)JournalEuropeStated preference survey (same survey as Alessandrini et al. (2014))(i) User preferences for automation are higher in cities where automated buses have been implemented
(ii) Users with no experience of autonomous buses tend not to trust autonomous buses
(iii) The socioeconomic factors’ that influence users’ attitudes are heterogeneous across cities

Piao et al. (2016)Conference proceedingEuropeSurvey (, La Rochelle, France)(i) Approximately two-thirds of respondents would consider riding an autonomous bus if both autonomous and conventional buses are available
(ii) Respondents were concerned with passenger security, particularly in the evening and at night

Madigan et al. (2016)Conference proceedingEuropeSurvey (, La Rochelle, France and Lausanne, Switzerland)(i) Performance expectancy, effort expectancy, and social influence impact users’ preferences for autonomous buses
(ii) Performance expectancy has the strongest impact on intentions to use autonomous buses

Madigan et al. (2017)JournalEuropeSurvey (, Trikala, Greece)(i) User enjoyment strongly impacts intentions to use autonomous buses.
(ii) Performance expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions are other factors that have significant effects
(iii) Gender is not highly correlated with user acceptance

Nordhoff et al. (2017)Conference proceedingEuropeSurvey (, Berlin Schoeneberg, Germany)(i) Perceived usefulness, ease of use, and social influence are the primary factors that impact acceptance of driverless shuttles

Portouli et al. (2017)Conference proceedingEuropeSurvey (, Trikala, Greece)(i) Younger people are more willing to accept and use autonomous minibuses
Dong et al. (2017)JournalUnited StatesStated preference survey (, Philadelphia)(i) Approximately two’thirds of respondents (current transit riders) were more willing to ride driverless buses when there is an onboard transit employee
(ii) Males and younger people have more willingness to ride driverless buses than females and older respondents
Moták et al. (2017)JournalEuropeStated preference surveys (, first-year psychology students, , potential and actual users in France)(i) Researchers applied the technology acceptance model and theory of planned behaviour frameworks to study acceptance of autonomous shuttles
(ii) Intentions to use autonomous shuttles depends on factors such as the aspects that are linked to its perceived usefulness and positive affective attitude
Eden et al. (2017)Conference proceedingEuropeInterviews of before and after experience (, Sion, Switzerland)(i) Although there were some safety concerns before riding the autonomous shuttles, passengers had fewer safety concerns after riding
(ii) Overall there was a positive opinion about comfort and convenience of autonomous shuttles

Nordhoff et al. (2018)JournalEuropeSurvey (, Berlin Schoeneberg, Germany)(i) Survey respondents generally had positive attitudes toward autonomous shuttles
(ii) Passengers were less satisfied about autonomous shuttles than their existing travel modes
(iii) Older respondents had more intention to use autonomous shuttles
(iv) No correlation between gender and user acceptance was found
(v) Autonomous shuttles need improvements in terms of efficiency and speed

Wintersberger et al. (2018)Conference proceedingEuropeInterview (, Germany)(i) After riding in an autonomous bus, acceptance and positive attitudes increased

Salonen (2018)JournalEuropeSurvey (, Vantaa, Finland)(i) Males and younger people were more willing to ride driverless buses than females and older respondents

Anania et al. (2018)JournalUnited States and IndiaTwo surveys ()(i) Parents are less willing for their children to ride autonomous buses to school in comparison with riding school buses with a human driver
(ii) American females are less willing to let their children rides in driverless school buses than Indian females

CityMobil2 Project.