Cognitively Stimulating Activities: Effects on Cognition across Four Studies with up to 21 Years of Longitudinal Data
Table 2
LBLS participant characteristics.
Year of testing
Measure
Baseline
Year 3
Year 6
Year 9
( )
( )
( )
( )
Retention from previous testing (%)
52.0
49.3
70.1
Age [M (SD)]
73.7 (9.2)
75.4 (8.7)
75.1 (8.0)
76.1 (7.1)
Education [M (SD)]
13.7 (3.0)
13.9 (2.8)
14.2 (2.7)
14.2 (2.7)
Sex, female [ (%)]
285 (51)
146 (50)
70 (49)
51 (51)
Reasoning [M (SD)]
22.3 (11.7)
23.9 (11.5)
25.4 (11.6)
25.2 (11.1)
Fluency [M (SD)]
32.4 (11.6)
33.7 (11.1)
33.3 (13.3)
34.4 (11.7)
Memory [M (SD)]
11.4 (4.0)
11.6 (4.3)
11.6 (4.5)
11.2 (4.6)
Semantic knowledge [M (SD)]
38.5 (10.3)
39.5 (9.6)
40.7 (9.0)
39.7 (9.8)
Cognitive activity [M (SD)]
2.5 (1.3)
2.8 (1.4)
2.7 (1.3)
2.6 (1.3)
Activity change [M (SD)]
—
0.2 (1.3)
0.2 (1.4)
−0.2 (1.3)
M: mean; SD: standard deviation. The theoretical ranges for each measure with a defined upper limit are as follows: education = 0–20, reasoning = 0–30, memory = 0–20, semantic knowledge = 0–36, and cognitive activity = 0–6.