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Rituals | Associated infection |
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Self-flagellation | HTLV-1 and hepatitis C |
Ritualistic consumption raw mollusks | Angiostrongylus cantonensis-related eosinophilic meningitis |
Ritualistic animal sacrifice | Mycobacterium bovis, orf, brucellosis, cutaneous anthrax, and rift valley fever |
Sprinkling of holy water | Bacterial infections (surgical site, pneumonia) |
Blood brotherhood and other rituals involving blood (e.g., group circumcision, skin scarification, bloodletting, and female genital mutilation) | HIV, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, Clostridium tetani, Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, syphilis, Trichomonas vaginalis, herpes simplex virus |
Tattooing | Sporotrichosis, blood borne infections |
Widow inheritance and similar rituals | HIV |
Kumbha Mela (involving ritualistic bathing and dipping in rivers) | Diarrheal disease including cholera, respiratory infection including COVID-19 |
Mortuary rituals | Cholera, Ebola, kuru |
Ritual side rolls | Cutaneous larva migrans |
Circumcision in Jewish infants | Herpes simplex virus |
Ablution (involving nasal irrigation) | Naegleria fowleri meningoencephalitis |
Mass gatherings (e.g., Haj) | Various infections including meningococcal meningitis, cholera, influenza, viral hepatitis, COVID-19, and tuberculosis |
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