The Link between Overweight/Obesity and Noncommunicable Diseases in Ethiopia: Evidences from Nationwide WHO STEPS Survey 2015

Table 2

Multilevel bivariate and multivariable logistic regression analysis of blood pressure and cholesterol levels.

Characteristics of participants	Blood pressure		Cholesterol level
	COR (95% CI)	AOR (95% CI)	COR (95% CI)	AOR (95% CI)
Lifestyle and behavioral factors
BMI (ref = normal)
Underweight	0.5 (0.3–0.8)	0.6 (0.5–0.7)	0.3 (0.1–0.6)	0.7 (0.6–0.9)
Overweight/obesity	3.8 (3.1–4.6)	2.0 (1.7–2.3)	2.2 (1.8–2.8)	1.4 (1.1–1.7)
Consumption of fruit per week (ref = 0)
1-2	0.9 (0.8–1.10)		0.9 (0.8–1.1)
≥3	1.01 (0.8–1.2)		1.1 (0.8–1.3)
Consumption of fruit per day (ref = 1-2)
≥3	1.01 (0.8–1.2)		0.8 (0.6–1.2)
Consumption of vegetables per week (ref = 0)
1-2	1.03 (0.9–1.2)	1.01 (0.9–1.2)	1.01 (0.8–1.2)
≥3	1.2 (1.1–1.4)	0.9 (0.8–1.2)	1.1 (0.9–1.3)
Consumption of vegetables per day (ref = 1-2)
≥3	1.02 (0.9–1.2)		0.9 (0.8–1.1)
Frequency of salt consumption (ref = always)
Sometimes	1.2 (1.1–1.4)	0.9 (0.7–1.04)	1.01 (0.8–1.2)
Never	1.1 (0.9–1.3)	1.2 (0.9–1.4)	1.04 (0.9–1.2)
Consumption of processed food high in salt (ref = always/often)
Sometimes	1.2 (0.98–1.4)	1.1 (0.9–1.4)	1.1 (0.9–1.4)	1.1 (0.8–3.1)
Never	1.1 (0.9–1.3)	1.0 (0.8–1.3)	1.2 (0.9–1.5)	1.2 (0.9–5.6)
Most often used oil type (ref = vegetable oil)
Lard/butter/margarine	1.3 (1.1–1.6)	1.1 (0.9–1.4)	1.001 (0.8–1.3)	1.0 (0.7–1.3)
Other/none in particular	1.2 (1.03–1.4)	1.0 (0.8–1.2)	1.1 (0.9–1.3)	0.9 (0.8–1.2)
None use	1.3 (1.01–1.8)	1.1 (0.8–1.5)	1.1 (0.8–1.6)	1.0 (0.7–1.5)
Consumption of meal outside the home (ref = 0–2 per week)
≥3 per week	0.9 (0.8–1.3)	0.9 (0.8–1.2)	0.8 (0.6–0.9)	0.9 (0.7–1.2)
Alcohol consumption (ref = yes)
No	0.8 (0.7–0.9)	0.8 (0.7–0.9)	1.1 (0.9–1.2)
Cigarette smoking (ref = yes)
No	0.9 (0.7–1.2)	0.8 (0.7–1.1)	1.03 (0.8–1.3)
Khat-chewing habit (ref = yes)
No	1.5 (1.2–2.1)	1.1 (0.9–1.2)	1.1 (0.9–1.3)	1.0 (0.8–1.2)
Lifestyle advice (ref = no)
Yes	1.6 (1.4–1.9)	1.4 (1.1–1.7)	0.9 (0.7–1.8)	0.8 (0.6–0.9)
Socio-demographic and economic factors
Sex (ref = male)
Female	1.1 (0.9–1.2)	1.2 (1.01–1.32)	1.5 (1.3–1.7)	1.4 (1.2–1.7)
Residence (ref = urban)
Rural	0.6 (0.5–0.7)	0.8 (0.7–0.9)	0.5 (0.4–0.6)	0.6 (0.4–0.7)
Age (ref = 15–24)
25–35	1.5 (1.3–1.7)	1.4 (1.1–1.6)	1.1 (0.9–1.3)	1.0 (0.8–1.2)
36–49	2.3 (2.0–2.7)	2.1 (1.6–2.4)	1.2 (1.1–1.5)	1.3 (1.02–1.6)
≥50	4.00 (3.4–4.7)	3.6 (2.9–4.4)	1.4 (1.2–1.8)	1.5 (1.2–1.9)
Educational status (ref = no formal education)
Less than primary	0.7 (0.6–0.8)	0.8 (0.7–0.9)	0.9 (0.8–1.1)	1.1 (0.9–1.3)
Primary	0.7 (0.5–0.8)	0.9 (0.8–1.2)	0.8 (0.7–1.1)	1.1 (0.8–1.4)
Secondary	0.8 (0.7–1.01)	1.04 (0.8–1.3)	0.9 (0.8–1.2)	1.1 (0.8–1.5)
College and above	0.9 (0.8–1.2)	0.9 (0.7–1.3)	1.1 (0.8–1.4)	1.1 (0.8–1.5)
Occupation (ref = government/skilled private employee)
Farmer	0.7 (0.6–0.8)	0.7 (0.6–0.9)	0.7 (0.5–0.8)	0.7 (0.6–0.9)
Trader	0.7 (0.5–0.9)	0.7 (0.5–0.9)	0.7 (0.6–0.9)	0.7 (0.5–1.0)
Student	0.4 (0.3–0.5)	0.7 (0.4–0.9)	0.5 (0.4–0.7)	0.6 (0.5–0.9)
Homemaker/housewife	0.8 (0.7–1.01)	0.8 (0.6–1.01)	0.9 (0.8–1.1)	0.7 (0.5–0.9)
Unemployed	0.9 (0.7–1.2)	0.9 (0.7–1.05)	0.9 (0.7–1.3)	0.8 (0.6–1.1)
Region (ref = Addis Ababa)
Afar	0.3 (0.2–0.4)	0.5 (0.3–0.8)	0.8 (0.5–1.3)	1.4 (0.8–2.4)
Amhara	0.6 (0.5–0.8)	1.05 (0.8–1.4)	0.6 (0.4–0.9)	1.1 (0.7–1.7)
Benishangul Gumz	0.4 (0.3–0.7)	0.8 (0.5–1.3)	0.7 (0.4–1.2)	1.3 (0.7–2.3)
Dire Dawa	0.3 (0.2–0.5)	0.6 (0.4–1.1)	0.8 (0.4–1.4)	1.2 (0.6–2.4)
Gambela	0.4 (0.3–0.7)	0.8 (0.5–1.4)	0.2 (0.1–0.5)	0.4 (0.2–0.8)
Harari	0.5 (0.3–0.8)	1.0 (0.5–1.7)	0.8 (0.4–1.6)	1.5 (0.7–3.1)
Oromiya	0.5 (0.4–0.7)	1.04 (0.7–1.4)	0.5 (0.3–0.6)	0.8 (0.6–1.3)
S.N.N.P	0.9 (0.7–1.1)	1.7 (1.2–2.3)	0.4 (0.3–0.6)	0.7 (0.4–1.1)
Somali	0.4 (0.3–0.6)	0.6 (0.4−0.09)	1.9 (1.2–2.9)	3.4 (2.1–5.6)
Tigray	0.3 (0.2–0.4)	0.4 (0.3–0.6)	0.4 (0.3–0.6)	0.6 (0.4–1.04)
Random effects
Var (EA)	—	0.3 (0.2–0.4)	—	0.6 (0.4, 0.7)

Note. : ; : (for bivariate analysis); : with boldface: for multivariable analysis.