Ginger and Its Constituents: Role in Prevention and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Cancer

Table 2

In vivo effects of ginger and its constituents against various GI cancer models.

Cancer	Effects	Reference
Liver	Exhibit hepatoprotective activity against alcoholic fatty liver disease in C57BL/6 mice	[39]
Liver	Increase superoxide dismutase and glutathione reductase level in blood; Increase glutathione-S-transferase, glutathione peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase enzymes in liver	[40]
	Reduce carrageenan-, dextran-, and formalin- induced chronic inflammation; Reduce acetic acid induced writhing movements	[41]
Liver	Decrease the hepatic content of metallothionein and endostatin in Wister Albino rats; Increase the growth factors induced by the carcinogen
Liver	Protect the rat liver from the carcinogenic effects of DEN and AAF; Increase Bax and decrease Bcl-2 protein expression	[42]
	Downregulate serum alanine transaminase, aspartate transaminase, alkaline phosphatase, and alpha-fetoprotein	[23]
Pancreatic	Downregulate NF-κB signaling and cell survival regulators and sensitize to gemcitabine treatment in pancreatic cancer xenografted mice
Liver	Inhibit CYP450, 1-aminobenzotriazole, and aldo-keto reductase liver microsomes of rats; and prevent the formation of M14 and M15 and 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid	[14]
Liver	Downregulate NF-κB and TNF-α in Wistar rats with liver cancer	[43]
Liver	Reduce SOD activity and MDA level and increase catalase activity in liver of Wistar rats	[44]
Colon	Decrease the incidence and number of tumors in colon of Wistar rats	[45]
Gastric	Inhibit the expression of the chemokines and TNF-α in gastric cancer of rat model	[46]
Gastric	Reverse cisplatin-induced delay in gastric emptying in rats	[47]
Colon	Decrease the fecal bile acids, neutral sterols, tissue cholesterol, HMG CoA reductase, free fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipase A, and phospholipase C in colon	[48]
Colon	Decrease the incidence and number of tumors in colon as well as the activity of beta-glucuronidase and mucinase	[49]
CCA	Exhibit anti-inflammatory, antihypertensive, and antiulcer activities in CCA xenograft nude mouse model	[37]
Colon	Block the azoxymethane-induced intestinal carcinogenesis in rats	[50]

DEN, diethylnitrosamine; AAF, acetylaminofluorene; NF-κB, nuclear factor kappaB; CYP450, cytchrome P450; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-alpha; SOD, superoxide dismutase; MDA, malondialdehyde; CCA, cholangiocarcinoma.