Study (references)
Year Animal experiment
Clinical trial
Findings
Mechanism of action In vivo /in vitro Animal/cell Disease model Karthikesan et al. [31 ] 2010 In vivo STZ-NA-induced diabetic rats T2DM — Hypoglycemic and antidiabetic effects — Karthikesan et al. [32 ] 2010 In vivo STZ-NA-induced T2DM adult Wistar rats T2DM — hypoglycemic and antidiabetic effects — Pari et al. [33 ] 2010 In vivo STZ-NA-induced T2DM adult Wistar rats T2DM — hypoglycemic and antidiabetic effects — Bassoli et al. [12 ] 2008 In vitro Liver perfusion — — Reduction in the plasma glucose peak in the oral glucose tolerance test — Alonso-Castro et al. [34 ] 2008 In vitro 3T3-F442A murine adipocytes — Exerting antidiabetic effects on stimulating glucose uptake in both insulin-sensitive and insulin-resistant adipocytes — van Dijk et al. [35 ] 2009 — — — Overweight men Reducing early fasting glucose and insulin responses in overweight men during an OGTT — Ahrens and Thompson [36 ] 2013 — — — T2DM patients Lowering the glycemic impact of foods and lowering background blood glucose levels of T2DM — Tousch et al. [37 ] 2008 In vitro L6 muscular cells — Stimulation of insulin secretion — Johnston et al. [38 ] 2003 — — — Healthy fasted volunteers Stimulation of insulin secretion — Liang et al. [42 ] 2013 In vivo Mouse induced by high fat emulsion Insulin resistance — Improvement of glucose tolerance and insulin resistance — Rodriguez de Sotillo and Hadley [14 ] 2002 In vivo (fa/fa) Zucker rats T2DM — Lowering serum and hepatic CG and TG levels — Shimoda et al. [46 ] 2006 In vivo Male ddy mice — — Inhibiting fat absorption and activating fat metabolism in the liver — Cho et al. [47 ] 2010 In vivo High-fat diet induced-obese mice T2DM — Improvement of obesity-related hormones levels — Karthikesan et al. [48 ] 2010 In vivo STZ-NA induced diabetic rats T2DM — Alterations in lipids, lipoproteins, and enzymes involved in lipid metabolism — Wang et al. [50 ] 2012 In vivo Mice induced by high-fat diet T2DM — Improvement of antioxidant activities — Rodriguez de Sotillo et al. [15 ] 2006 In vivo Obese Zucker (fa/fa) rats T2DM — Improvement of glucose tolerance and mineral pool distribution Improvement of cellular mechanisms Zheng et al. [52 ] 2007 In vivo Kud:Wistar rats — — Reducing the postprandialblood glucose concentration Inhibiting the activity of
-glucosidase Tunnicliffe et al. [59 ] 2011 In vivo Male Sprague-Dawley rats T2DM — Attenuating AUC for blood glucose Alteration of GIP concentrations Ong et al. [63 ] 2012 In vivo In vitro db/db mice L6 skeletal muscle cells T2DM — Stimulating glucose transport in L6 myotubes in a dose- and time-dependent manner Activation of AMPK Ong et al. [18 ] 2013 In vivo In vitro Lepr db/db mice Hepatoma HepG2 T2DM — Attenuating hepatic steatosis, improving lipid profiles and skeletal muscle glucose uptake, glucose tolerance, insulin sensitivity, and dyslipidemia Activation of AMPK Gebhardt [64 ] 1998 In vitro Primary cultured rat hepatocytes — — — Inhibiting HMG CoA reductase and inhibiting the synthesis of cholesterol Frank et al. [65 ] 2003 In vivo Sprague-Dawley rats — — — Strengthening the activity of carnitine palmitoyl transferase (CPT) Arion et al. [68 ] 1997 In vitro Rat hepatic cells — — — CGA is the most specific T1 (the G-6-Pase transporter) inhibitor, and may inhibit hepatic G-6-Pase Wang et al. [69 ] 2012 In vivo Chemical-induced diabetic rats T2DM — Exerting effects on improving blood glucose, TG, TC, and insulin sensitivity Downregulating expression of G-6-pase and upregulating mRNA levels of GLUT4 Zhang et al. [17 ] 2011 In vivo db/db mice T2DM — Improvement of the disordered glucose/lipid metabolism Upregulating expression of hepatic PPAR-
Li et al. [76 ] 2009 In vivo Golden hamsters fed on high-fat diet T2DM — Modifying glucose and lipids metabolism Upregulating expression of hepatic PPAR-
Wan et al. [19 ] 2013 In vivo Sprague-Dawley rats induced with a high-cholesterol diet Hyperlipidemia — Altering the increased plasma total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein but decreased HDL induced by a hypercholesterolemic diet with a dose-dependent improvement Upregulating expression of hepatic PPAR-