Hygiene and Sanitation Practices and the Risk of Morbidity among Children 6–23 Months of Age in Kumbungu District, Ghana
Table 5
Univariate determinants of diarrhoea and RTI morbidity and co-morbidity among the 6–23 months old children.
Variable
Diarrhoea
Respiratory tract infection (RTI)
Both diarrhoea and RTI
Either diarrhoea or RTI
Odds ratio (95% C.I)
-value
Odds ratio (95% C.I)
-value
Odds ratio (95% C.I)
-value
Odds ratio (95% C.I)
-value
Demographics
Sex of child (ref = female)
Male
1.05 (0.67, 1.66)
0.82
0.94 (0.59, 1.49)
0.79
0.96 (0.59, 1.58)
0.87
1.04 (0.60, 1.80)
0.89
Age of child (ref = 12–24 months)
<12 months
0.90 (0.55, 1.47)
0.67
1.08 (0.66, 1.78)
0.76
1.34 (0.67, 1.93)
0.64
0.82 (0.46, 1.47)
0.50
12–23 months (ref)
1
1
1
1
Age of mother
0.60
0.46
0.62
0.76
15–25 years (ref)
1
1
1
1
26–35 years
1.25 (0.76, 2.06)
0.74 (0.45, 1.22)
0.80 (0.46, 1.37)
1.19 (0.65, 2.17)
≥36 years
1.34 (0.66, 2.72)
0.74 (0.36, 1.49)
1.06 (0.51, 2.24)
0.92 (0.40, 2.07)
Parity of mother
≤5 children (ref)
1
1
1
1
>5 children
0.91 (0.47, 1.78)
0.79
1.02 (0.52, 1.98)
0.96
0.78 (0.39, 1.58)
0.49
1.21 (0.56, 2.63)
0.62
Occupation of mother
0.46
0.44
0.71
0.14
Unemployed
0.72 (0.36, 1.44)
0.99 (0.49, 1.98)
1.00 (0.48, 2.07)
0.55 (0.22, 1.39)
Farmer
0.70 (0.39, 1.24)
0.73 (0.41, 1.30)
0.81 (0.44, 1.49)
0.46 (0.21, 1.00)
Petty trader (ref)
1
1
1
1
Educational status of mother
Nonliterate
0.69 (0.39, 1.24)
0.22
0.85 (0.47, 1.51)
0.58
0.79 (0.43, 1.45)
0.44
0.60 (0.28, 1.29)
0.19
Literate (ref)
1
1
1
1
Household sanitation
Household sanitation condition based on observational guide
0.56
0.26
0.13
0.71
Poor (ref)
1
1
1
1
Good
0.75 (0.45, 1.27)
1.23 (0.73, 2.06)
1.09 (0.61, 1.94)
0.81 (0.43, 1.52)
Very good
0.86 (0.47, 1.56)
1.66 (0.90, 3.06)
1.85 (0.98, 3.48)
0.75 (0.37, 1.55)
How garbage is disposed
Dug pit/burn (ref)
0.57 (0.25, 1.32)
0.19
0.76 (0.33, 1.73)
0.51
0.40 ( 0.18, 0.90)
0.03
1.07 (0.41, 2.78)
0.89
Otherwise1
1
1
1
1
How far garbage disposal is from the house
50–100 m from house (ref)
1
1
1
1
0–50 m from house
1.23 (0.58, 2.59)
0.59
0.65 (0.30, 1.42)
0.28
0.66 (0.31, 1.42)
0.29
1.27 (0.54, 2.98)
0.59
Sewage channel
Soak away
1
1
1
1
Otherwise2
1.23 (0.78, 1.95)
0.38
1.23 (0.78, 1.95)
0.38
1.32 (0.80, 2.18)
0.28
1.30 (0.75, 2.25)
0.36
Number of times compound is cleaned
At least once daily
1.72 (0.87, 3.38)
0.12
1.07 (0.55, 2.07)
0.84
1.16 (0.58, 2.33)
0.67
2.27 (0.85, 6.02)
0.10
At least twice daily (ref)
1
1
1
1
Toilet facility in household
Latrine/pubic toilet or WC (ref)
1
1
1
1
None (open defecation)
1.49 (0.81, 2.76)
0.20
1.64 (0.89, 3.05)
0.11
1.61 (0.78, 3.32)
0.19
1.97 (1.04, 3.86))
0.049
Where child shits
0.95
0.26
0.99
0.066
Chamber pot (ref)
1
1
1
1
Outside the compound
1.08 (0.67, 1.76)
1.31 (0.80, 2.13)
1.00 (0.59, 1.70)
1.63 (0.91, 2.92)
Other3
1.03 (0.49, 2.14)
1.94 (0.90, 4.19)
1.03 (0.46, 2.24)
3.03 (1.01, 9.13)
Water and food hygiene practices
Washing of utensils with soap before cooking
Yes (ref)
1
1
1
1
No
0.96 (0.42, 2.17)
0.92
0.72 (0.32, 1.64)
0.44
0.88 (0.36, 2.20)
0.79
0.70 (0.28, 1.76)
0.45
Frequency of cleaning water container before use
Any time container is being filled
1
1
1
1
Otherwise
2.09 (0.71, 6.18)
0.18
0.77 (0.28, 2.12)
0.62
1.05 (0.35, 3.12)
0.93
2.04 (0.45, 9.21)
0.36
Frequently used water source
Pipe/borehole (ref)
1
1
1
1
Other4
1.04 (0.34, 3.16)
0.95
0.94 (0.31, 2.86)
0.91
0.68 (0.18, 2.53)
0.56
1.58 (0.34, 7.31)
0.56
Treatment of fruits and vegetables
Washed with saline
1.58 (0.76, 3.27)
0.22
1.26 (0.61, 2.58)
0.53
1.25 (0.59, 2.63)
0.56
2.36 (0.80, 6.96)
0.12
Otherwise (ref)5
1
1
1
1
Leftover food is covered
Yes (ref)
1
1
1
1
No
1.20 (0.41, 3.55)
0.74
1.49 (0.49, 4.55)
0.49
1.80 (0.60, 5.33)
0.29
1.04 (0.28, 3.84)
0.95
Child feeding practices
Caregiver washes hands with or without soap after defecation
Yes
0.79 (0.34, 1.84)
0.59
0.39 (0.15, 1.00)
0.05
0.48 (0.21, 1.12)
0.09
0.48 (0.14, 1.67)
0.25
No (ref)
1
1
1
1
Caregiver washes hands with soap after defecation
Yes
0.28 (0.18, 0.46)
<.0001∗
0.83 (0.53, 1.31)
0.43
0.38 (0.23, 0.64)
0.0002
0.40 (0.22, 0.72)
0.002
No (ref)
1
1
1
1
Caregiver washes hand with soap before feeding
Yes
0.51 (0.31, 0.83)
0.006
1.01 (0.62, 1.62)
0.98
0.62 (0.37, 1.02)
0.06
0.70 (0.38, 1.26)
0.23
No (ref)
1
1
1
1
Child’s hands washed with or without soap before feeding
Yes
0.19 (0.04, 0.89)
0.03
1.07 (0.35, 3.25)
0.91
0.49 (0.16, 1.50)
0.21
0.70 (0.38, 1.26)
0.23
No (ref)
1
1
1
1
Child’s hands washed with soap before feeding
Yes
0.89 (0.56, 1.42)
0.62
0.65 (0.40, 1.04)
0.07
0.64 (0.39, 1.06)
0.08
0.79 (0.44, 1.40)
0.41
No (ref)
1
1
1
1
Child is bottle fed
Yes
0.71 (0.39, 1.29)
0.26
0.70 (0.41, 1.19)
0.19
0.71 (0.39, 1.29)
0.26
0.72 (0.39, 1.34)
0.30
No (ref)
1
1
1
1
Person who feeds the child
Mother (ref)
1
1
1
1
Other
0.96 (0.51, 1.80)
0.90
1.06 (0.56, 1.99)
0.86
0.89 (0.44, 1.78)
0.74
1.19 (0.54, 2.61)
0.67
DDS
0.95 (0.84, 1.08)
0.43
0.94 (0.83, 1.07)
0.36
0.95 (0.83, 1.09)
0.46
0.91 (0.78, 1.06)
0.22
Breastfeeding status of child
Yes
0.70 (0.39, 1.27)
0.24
0.86 (0.48, 1.56)
0.62
0.78 (0.42, 1.45)
0.43
0.64 (0.30, 1.39)
0.26
No (ref)
1
1
1
1
Values are odds ratios and 95% confidence interval; 1inlcudes rubbish dump site and surrounding bush; 2gutter and no drainage; 3surrounding bush; 4includes well, river and dam; 5washing with only water; statistically significant at 5% level of significance.
